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海拔高于3000米的地区在医学上定义为高原地区。高原地区寒冷干燥、多风少雨、紫外线强、大气中氧含量和氧分压均低于平原地区,且随着海拔高度增加而递减。因高原低氧环境引起的肺部疾病统称为高原肺部疾病,通常有胸闷、气短、头痛、失眠等生理反应[1],严重的造成肺水肿,危及生命。我国高原地区广阔,占国土总面积1/6以上[2],因此,高原肺部疾病对高原人民的生存和发展带来严峻挑战。本文综述近年来在高原肺部疾病方面的研究进展。
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肺动脉高压(PAH)是一种进行性疾病,特征是肺小动脉重塑导致肺动脉压升高。该疾病的血液动力学定义是静息时平均肺动脉压≥25mmHg,运动时正常左心室充盈压≥30mmHg。PAH是由于不受控制的肺血管重塑,导致肺血管阻力增加, 高肺血管阻力会导致肺动脉压进行性升高和持续血管收缩,导致适应性差的右心室肥大,最终会因心力衰竭而死亡[27]。
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2013年第五届世界肺动脉高压研讨会将PAH分为5类,其中高原肺动脉高压(HAPH)属于第3类[28]。HAPH是由于高原低压低氧条件下,生理代偿性增加肺换气、肺动脉压力增加引起的高原地区特有疾病[29],其发病率、死亡率在世居人群、长期移居高原人群中均较高,且男性高于女性。随海拔高度的升高及居住年限延长而增加,在同一海拔地区,移居汉族人的发病率显著高于藏族[30]。
在长期慢性缺氧条件下,肺血管重构会逐渐发展,成为导致肺动脉高压的主要因素,其病理特征主要表现为:①血管内皮细胞损伤及增殖;②血管平滑肌细胞的增殖与表型转换;③无肌性小动脉肌化;④外膜成纤维细胞增生及胞外基质沉积[10]。这些改变都会导致肺血管管腔狭窄、顺应性下降、阻力升高,最终因右心负荷增加、右心衰竭而死亡。
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前列环素即前列腺素I2,是血管内皮花生四烯酸通过前列环素合酶的作用得到的产物[31],是一种全身性和肺血管扩张剂,通过促进细胞内cAMP生成,引起肺血管平滑肌舒张,抑制平滑肌生长及血小板聚集[31-32]。前列环素在抗增殖、抗血栓形成、抗有丝分裂和免疫调节中发挥重要作用[33]。从PAH患者体内分离出的肺动脉PGI2合酶活性及其代谢产物均减少[34]。因此前列环素类似物可用于PAH患者。依泊汀醇是1995年被FDA批准用于治疗PAH的首个前列环素类似物。其他前列环素类似物还有伊洛前列素、曲前列环素等。
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内皮型一氧化氮是在内皮型一氧化氮合酶(eNOS)作用下将L-精氨酸转化为瓜氨酸得到。随后 NO结合并激活可溶性鸟苷酸环化酶,生成cGMP,cGMP则通过激活cGMP蛋白激酶导致血管松弛,抑制肺动脉平滑肌细胞增殖和血小板聚集,充当调节平滑肌收缩力的第二信使[35-36]。
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磷酸二酯酶(PDEs)可通过水解将cGMP转化为5′-GMP并使其失活,导致肺动脉血管收缩[11]。磷酸二酯酶抑制剂通过抑制cGMP裂解,增加血管平滑肌细胞内cGMP含量使血管扩张。磷酸二酯酶3、4、5型是在肺动脉收缩细胞中发现的三种主要类型,其中 PDE-5是肺循环中表达最丰富的同工型。西地那非于2005年在欧洲上市,是口服PDE-5抑制剂,在加拿大和美国已获许可用于II~IV级PAH患者。其他PDE-5抑制剂还有他达拉非、伐地拉非等。
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内皮素(ET)是一种有效的肺血管收缩剂,与ET受体(ETR)相互作用后,对血管平滑肌细胞具有增生作用。ETRA主要位于肺动脉平滑肌细胞;ETRB主要分布于血管肺动脉上皮细胞,而在肺动脉平滑肌细胞上较少分布[37]。ETA激活会诱导血管平滑肌细胞的血管收缩和增殖[13]。ETB拮抗剂则可能通过从上皮细胞释放NO和前列环素来诱导血管舒张[38]。PAH患者血浆和肺动脉ET-1表达较高,这与疾病严重程度(包括血管重塑程度)直接相关[39]。波生坦是第一个被批准用于PAH治疗的口服ETRA和ETRB拮抗剂。安立生坦是一种口服选择性ETRA拮抗剂。马西替坦是FDA新批准的口服ETRA、ETRB拮抗剂。此外, VIP也是肺动脉高压的重要靶标(图2)。
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酪氨酸激酶是一种普遍存在的蛋白质家族。某些血小板源性生长因子(如血小板衍生生长因子、成纤维细胞生长因子2、血管内皮生长因子等)与其受体结合后会诱导细胞内酪氨酸残基自磷酸化,继而作用于信号转导途径,诱导肺动脉平滑肌的异常增殖和迁移,使肺血管重塑,从而导致肺动脉高压[40]。抑制酪氨酸激酶可逆转肺血管重塑、降低肺血管阻力,成为治疗PAH的新策略,代表药物有伊马替尼[41]。
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Rho激酶(ROCK)是调节血管收缩和细胞增殖的重要细胞内信号分子。 ROCK有两种亚型:ROCK1主要分布于肺和肝,而ROCK2主要分布于心脏、大脑[42]。慢性缺氧致大鼠肺动脉高压模型和野百合碱致严重肺动脉高压患者中肺组织和肺动脉中Rho激酶活性均显著增高[43-44]。因此可通过抑制Rho激酶来治疗PAH。法舒地尔是目前唯一临床使用的Rho激酶抑制剂,它可渗透进入血管平滑肌细胞,在正常或病理条件下与ATP竞争Rho激酶催化区的ATP结合位点,特异性阻断Rho激酶活性获得治疗(图3)。
治疗肺动脉高压常用药物及其优缺点见表1。
表 1 治疗肺动脉高压药物的分类及主要优缺点
药物类别 代表药物 优点 缺点 NO 气态NO 全身性副作用最小,仅用于住院的PAH儿科患者 成本高,与血红蛋白结合后快速失活,可产生有毒代谢产物 磷酸二酯酶抑制剂 西地那非 改善心脏衰竭症状,达到纽约心脏功能第II、III度患者的 6 min步行距离,肺血流动力学和生存率 半衰期短,不良反应包括头痛、消化不良及全身性血管舒张等;儿科患者使用受限,单次给药剂量大,给药间隔短 ETR拮抗剂 波生坦 改善患者运动能力及血流动力学 肝药酶增加,因此需要对服用波生坦的患者每月进行肝转氨酶监测 血管活性肠肽 VIP PAH治疗的新靶标 易被内源蛋白酶降解,半衰期短 Rho激酶抑制剂 法舒地尔 改善肺动脉高压患者的血流动力学 仅有极少数蛛网膜下腔出血和局部缺血性休克病例中出现肝功能异常和低血压 -
治疗高原肺部疾病常见给药途径为口服和注射,缺乏针对肺部疾病的靶向性。肺部给药系统作为非侵入性药物递送技术已成为新的研究热点,是治疗肺部疾病最直接有效的给药途径。肺部约有3~4亿个肺泡,总面积可达70~100 m2,吸收面积大,有丰富的毛细血管,血流量大,药物易通过肺泡表面快速吸收。肺部的化学降解和酶降解反应能力弱,对药物破坏性小。药物经肺吸收后直接进入血液循环,可避免肝脏首过效应,提高药物生物利用度[20]。更重要的是,肺吸入的药物大部分沉积在肺部,可避免或减少对其他组织的毒副作用。相反,通常口服或注射途径到达肺的实际药量较低,以致肺中药物与血浆中药物比例较低,导致药效不足[52]。肺部给药剂型主要有三种:气雾剂、雾化吸入剂、干粉吸入剂或粉雾剂。脂质体、纳米粒、胶束、仿生载体等新技术可进一步制备成上述三种肺部给药制剂,实现局部靶向给药,提高药物的选择性和特异性,进而改善患者预后和提高治疗效果(表2)。
表 2 高原肺部疾病治疗用药剂型
药物载体 药物 模型及给药途径 与游离药物相比优势 参考文献 脂质体 伊洛前列素 体外吸入 雾化过程中脂质体稳定 [53] 法舒地尔 气管 PASMC的摄取增加 [54] 伊马替尼 体外和离体研究 适合肺部药物递送 [55-56] 聚合物纳米粒 PGE1 静脉注射 延长半衰期,增加血液药物积累 [57] 贝前列素 静脉注射 延长半衰期,增加血药积累,可治疗MCT和低氧诱导的肺动脉重塑和右心室肥厚 [58] 西地那非 体外吸入 雾化对粒径、粒径分布和载药率无影响 [59] 伊马替尼 气管内 通过抑制PASMC增殖,抑制MCT诱导的PAH [60] 红细胞膜纳米载体 法舒地尔 气管内 体外细胞摄取量增加,半衰期延长 [61] 注: PASMC. 肺动脉平滑肌细胞;PGE1.前列腺素E1 ; MCT.野百合碱
Mechanisms and therapeutic drugs of high-altitude lung diseases
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摘要: 高原低压、低氧、寒冷、干燥及强紫外线的恶劣环境严重威胁急进高原人员的身心健康。肺是高原损伤敏感器官,高原肺部疾病可分为急性高原肺部疾病(高原肺水肿)、慢性高原肺部疾病(高原肺动脉高压)和高原脱适应肺部疾病。本文在总结最新研究进展基础上,阐明上述高原肺部疾病的发病机制及其主要治疗药物,简要概述高原肺部疾病常用剂型及给药途径,希望为高原肺部疾病的诊断与治疗提供理论依据和参考。Abstract: The heavily harsh plateau environment including low pressure, hypoxia, cold, dryness and strong ultraviolet radiation, seriously threatens the physical and mental health of those who quickly enter the plateau area. Lungs are the sensitive organs for high altitude injury. High-altitude lung diseases include the acute high-altitude lung disease (i.e., high-altitude pulmonary edema), the chronic high-altitude lung disease (i.e., high-altitude pulmonary artery hypertension) and the high-altitude de-adapted reaction. This review summarizes the pathogenic mechanisms and the main therapeutic drugs of high-altitude lung diseases based on the recent research. Moreover, the related formulations and administration routes are also reviewed here. It will provide support and counsel for the diagnosis and treatment of high-altitude lung diseases.
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表 1 治疗肺动脉高压药物的分类及主要优缺点
药物类别 代表药物 优点 缺点 NO 气态NO 全身性副作用最小,仅用于住院的PAH儿科患者 成本高,与血红蛋白结合后快速失活,可产生有毒代谢产物 磷酸二酯酶抑制剂 西地那非 改善心脏衰竭症状,达到纽约心脏功能第II、III度患者的 6 min步行距离,肺血流动力学和生存率 半衰期短,不良反应包括头痛、消化不良及全身性血管舒张等;儿科患者使用受限,单次给药剂量大,给药间隔短 ETR拮抗剂 波生坦 改善患者运动能力及血流动力学 肝药酶增加,因此需要对服用波生坦的患者每月进行肝转氨酶监测 血管活性肠肽 VIP PAH治疗的新靶标 易被内源蛋白酶降解,半衰期短 Rho激酶抑制剂 法舒地尔 改善肺动脉高压患者的血流动力学 仅有极少数蛛网膜下腔出血和局部缺血性休克病例中出现肝功能异常和低血压 表 2 高原肺部疾病治疗用药剂型
药物载体 药物 模型及给药途径 与游离药物相比优势 参考文献 脂质体 伊洛前列素 体外吸入 雾化过程中脂质体稳定 [53] 法舒地尔 气管 PASMC的摄取增加 [54] 伊马替尼 体外和离体研究 适合肺部药物递送 [55-56] 聚合物纳米粒 PGE1 静脉注射 延长半衰期,增加血液药物积累 [57] 贝前列素 静脉注射 延长半衰期,增加血药积累,可治疗MCT和低氧诱导的肺动脉重塑和右心室肥厚 [58] 西地那非 体外吸入 雾化对粒径、粒径分布和载药率无影响 [59] 伊马替尼 气管内 通过抑制PASMC增殖,抑制MCT诱导的PAH [60] 红细胞膜纳米载体 法舒地尔 气管内 体外细胞摄取量增加,半衰期延长 [61] 注: PASMC. 肺动脉平滑肌细胞;PGE1.前列腺素E1 ; MCT.野百合碱 -
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